[The section of Ancient Period is contributed by Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. V. V. Mirashi, Nagpur. The sections from mediaeval period up to 1860 are contributed by Dr. B. G. Kunte, M.A., Ph.D. (Economics), Ph.D. (History), Executive Editor and Secretary. The sections from 1860 onwards are contributed by Prof. R. V. Oturkar, M.A., Poona, and revised by Dr. B. G. Kunte]

Pre-History: FROM ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS CARRIED ON BY THE DECCAN COLLEGE, POONA, under the auspices of the University of Poona in 1950-51. It appears that the territory round Nasik, the headquarters of the Nasik District, was occupied in the Early Stone Age. Though statigraphical evidence is still lacking, tools of trap rock characteristic of that age, such as deavers, scrapers and hand-axes, have been found from the buried river bed at Gangavadi, 10 miles north-west of Nasik. The earliest period known from excavations is the Chalcolithic or Early Bronze Age. It is evidenced by refined microliths-trapeze, lunates and two-edged blades of chert and chalce­dony in association with an ochre-washed orange coloured pottery, occasionally painted with red or black bands [Report on the Excavations at Nasik and Jorwe, 1950-51, pp. 6-7].  The characteristic features of this period as brought to light during excavations at Nasik, Nevasa and other places in the Deccan may be described as follows [Summarised from H. D. Sankalia's Indian Archaeology Today, p. 88 f] :-

"The earliest habitations of the people of this period must have been in the river valleys. The thick forests which must have covered them were first cut down with their stone and copper tools. The elevated sides on the banks of the rivers were chosen for a settlement. Each settlement may have consisted of about 50 or 100 huts. The huts were small, measuring about 10 feet by 9 feet and were either rectangular or round. They were constructed with wooden posts. The walls being of mud and the roof of bamboo matting, dry leaves etc. covered with a layer of mud. The houses were furnished with large and small storage jars, bowls (vatis) and vessels (Iotas) with long spouts. Their red surface was painted in black with geometric designs or figures of animals. They wore garments of cotton and probably also of silk. For their ornaments they used beads of semi-precious stones, crystal terracotta and rarely of copper and even of gold. Silver was unknown. Bangles were made of copper, burnt clay or bones, rarely of ivory.

For weapons they used products of chalcedony blade industry, flat copper axes and slings with round balls of various sizes. Their tools were made of dolerite and copper. They pounded their grains with pIano-convex rubber stones. Besides, they ate beef, mutton, pork, venison and river fish. Hunting and animal grazing formed their main occupations.

They buried their dead either within the house floor or outside. The children were buried in wide-mouthed jars. The dead were provided with bowls, spouted vessels and necklaces of copper and carnelian.

Economically these people were in a pastoral-cum-hunting-cum­-agricultural stage and lived in small villages on river-banks. They still used stone for various purposes, the use of copper being rare.  This kind of life continued until it was changed by a fresh influx of people who came with a knowledge of iron, agriculture and town-planning in about the fourth century B.C.

Who these people were is not definitely known, but one plausible conjecture is that they belonged to some of the Aryan tribes. This theory, however, needs confirmation by stronger evidence".

The above gleanings are from the excavations at such places as Nasik, Jorve and Nevasa in the Deccan. The duration of this Early Bronze Age is surmised by archaeologists to be from 1500-1000 B.C. to 500 B.C.

We shall next see what light is thrown on this period by literary sources. According to literary tradition, when the Aryans penetrated to the Deccan, the whole region was covered by a thick jungle, which extended southward from Central India. Agastya was the first Aryan who crossed the Vindhya and fixed his residence on the bank of the Godavari. This memorable event is commemorated by the mythical story which represents Vindhya as bending before his guru Agastya when the latter approached him. The sage asked the mountain to remain in that posture until he returned from the south, which he never did Agastya was followed by several other sages who established their hermitages in different regions of the south. The cluster of hermitages on the bank of the Godavari was called Janasthana to distinguish it from the surrounding forest country.  The region to the south of the Godavari was inhabited by the aborigines, who are called Rakshasas in the Ramayana. The sages living in Janasthana were constantly harassed by these Rakshasas. "These shapeless and ill-­looking monsters testify to their abominable character by various cruel and terrific displays. They implicate the hermits in impure practices and perform great outrages. Changing their shapes and hiding in thickets adjoining the hermitages, these frightful beings delight in terrifying the devotees; they cast away their sacrificial ladles and vessels; they pollute cooked oblations and utterly defile the offerings with blood. These faithless creatures inject frightful sounds into the ears of the faithful and austere hermits. At the time of the sacrifice they snatch away the jars, the flowers and the sacred grass of these sober-minded men" [Muir's Original Sacred Texts, Vol. V].

We learn from the Ramayana that Rama, accompanied by his brother Lakshmana and wife Sita, met Agastya on the bank of the Godavari. The sage presented him with a bow and two quivers and advised him to settle down at a place called Panchavati from the five great banyan trees which grew there. Even now there are some caves near Panchavati on the Godavari, which go by the name of Sita-Gumpha 'Sita's Cave', and which have in a large niche in the back wall the images of Rama, Lakshmana and Sita. Here Rama is said to have lived for some time and killed many Rakshasas who were harassing the sages. From here Sita was abducted by the demon king Ravana, which ultimately led to the invasion of Lanka by Rama with the help of the monkey hosts.

The earliest literary mention of Nasik, the headquarters of the district, occurs in a Varttika of Katyayana (circa 250 B.C.) on Panini's Surra (VI, I, 63) as explained by Patanjali. Katyayana's Varttika implies the name Nasikya of a city (nagara) which  was evidently the same as modern Nasik. Later, the name occurs in several sub­sequent works such as the Brihtsamhita of Varahamihira (6th cen. A.D.), Vayu, Varaha and other Puranas. Nasik was, however, more famous as a holy tirtha than as the headquarters of a territorial division. Govardhana, which still retains its ancient name and lies a few miles from Nasik, was the chief town of the division as appears from an inscription in the so-called Pandu-Iena caves [Ep. Ind., Vol. VIII, p. 82 f].

Janasthana and Panchavati were situated on the fringe of the great forest called Dandakaranya, the story of which is narrated in. the Uttarakanda of the Ramayana. We are told that a  large country was founded north of the Godavari by Vidarbha, the son of Rishabhdeva. His capital was Kundinapura in the Amravati district. Agastya married a princess of this country, Lopamudra by name. Agastya is the seer of some hymns of the Rigveda. His wife Lopamudra is mentioned in Rigveda I, 179,4. The Ramayana states that Danda or Dandaka, the son of Ikshvaku and grandson of Manu, ruled over the country between the Vindhya and Shaivala mountains with his capital at Madhumanta. He led a voluptuous life and once upon a time violated the daughter of the sage Bhargava. The sage then cursed the king that his whole kingdom would be devastated by a terrible dust-storm. The whole country between the Vindhya and Shaivala mountains, extending over a thousand yojanas, was conse­quently turned into a great forest, which since then came to be known as Dandakaranya. It was in this forest that the Shudra ascetic Shambuka was practising penance. According to the notions of those days, this was an irreligious act and so Rama beheaded him and revived the life of a Brahmana boy, who had died prematurely. The place where Shambuka was beheaded is still shown on the hill of Ramtek, about 28 miles from Nagpur. In the Uttararamacharita Bhavabhuti tells us that the Dandaka forest extended southward from this place up to Janasthana on the Godavari.

The Central part of the Deccan was divided into several countries known by different names. The region on the north of the Godavari, west of Vidarbha, now included in the Aurangabad district, was known by the name of Mulaka. This country together with its capital Pratishthana (modern Paithan) is mentioned in the Pali literature. To the north of it lay the country of Rishika, now called Khandesh. Along the southern bank of the Godavari extended the country of­ Ashmaka (pali, Assaka),which comprised the modern  Ahmadnagar and  Bid districts. Later, this region was included in the country of Kuntala, which extended far to the south. It included what is now known as the Southern Maratha country as well as Northern Karnataka and the Shimoga and Chitaldurg districts of the old Mysore State. In an inscriptional passage the upper valley of the Krishna is said to be included in the country of Kuntala [Ep. Ind., Vol. XII, p. 153. See Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 9, D. 4] In the Udayasundarikatha of Soddhala (l1th cen. A.D.) Pratishthana On the Godavari is said to be the capital of the Kuntala country. In early times Kuntala was probably included in the larger country called Maharashtra. The Aihole inscription (7th cen. A.D.) speaks of three Maharashtras which probably comprised Vidarbha, Western Maharashtra and Kuntala. In later times Kuntala came to denote the predominantly Kanarese-speaking country included in the Mysore State. It is described as a seven and half lakh province. The Early Chalukyas of Badami and the Later Chalukyas of Kalyani were known as Kuntaleshvaras or lords of Kuntala. In early times, however, the districts of Kolhapur, Satara, Sholapur, Ahmadnagar and  Bid which are now Marathi-speaking, were included in Kuntala. As we shall see later, the Early Rashtrakutas, who were ruling over this territory, were known as Kuntaleshvaras (Lords of Kuntala).

The modern districts of Osmanabad, Bidar, Gulbarga, Medaka and Raichur, now included in the States of Maharashtra, Mysore and Andhra Pradesh, were probably comprised in the country of Mahishaka. The reference to this country occurring in the Puranas and the Epics, suggest that it was situated in the Deccan. The Ramayana, for instance, couples the Mabishaka country with Vidarbha and Rishika (Khandesh) as countries of the south to which Sugriva directed the monkeys to go in search of Sita. Other references to this country in the Mahabharata and the Puranas also indicate its situation in this region. As we shall see later, a Shaka  family which was ruling over this territory as shown by the finds of its coins was known as Mahisha.

Mauryas: Coming to historical times, we find that all this territory was included in the Empire of Ashoka. An inscription issued by the Dharmamahamatra of Ashoka has been found at Devtek in the Chandrapur district of Vidarbha. It was issued in the fourteenth regnal year of Ashoka and interdicts the capture and killing of animals [ Mirashi, Studies in lndology, Vol. I. p, 109 f]. Again, the fifth and thirteenth rock-edicts of Ashoka mention the Rashtrika-Petenikas and the Bhoja-Petenikas. According to many scholars, Petenikas were inhabitants of Pratishthana, the Rashtrikas ruled as Maharathis, while the Bhojas held Vidarbha.

Shungas: After the overthrow of the Maurya dynasty in circa 184 B.C. the imperial throne in Pataliputra was occupied by Senapati Pushyamitra, the founder of the Shunga dynasty. His son Agnimitra was appointed Viceroy of Malva and ruled from Vidisha, modern Besnagar, a small village near Bhilsa. Vidarbha, which had seceded from the Maurya Empire during the reign of one of the weak successors of Ashoka, was then ruled by Yajnasena. He imprisoned his cousin Madhavasena., who was a rival claimant for the throne. The sister of Madhavasena escaped to Malva and got admission to the royal harem as a hand-maid to the queen Dharini under the name of Malavika. Agnimitra, who had espoused the cause of Madhavasena, and had sent an army against the king of Vidarbha, fell in love with Malavika and married her. The Malava army defeated the king of Vidarbha and released Madhavasena. Agnimitra then divided the country of Vidarbha between the two cousins, each ruling on one side of the Varada (Wardha). The story of Malavika forms the plot of the Sanskrit play Malavikagnmitra of Kalidasa.

Kalidasa does not state to what royal family Yajnasena and Madhavasena belonged and these names do not occur anywhere else. Still, it is possible to conjecture that they may have been feudatories of the Satavahanas, who rose to power in the Deccan soon after the death of Ashoka. From the Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri near Bhuvaneshvara we learn that Kharavela, the king of Kalinga, who was a contemporary of Pushyamitra, sent an army to the western region, not minding Satakarni. The latter evidently belonged to the Satavahana dynasty as the name occurs often in that family. Kharavela's army is said to have penetrated up to the river Kanhabenna and struck terror in heart of the people Rishika. The Kanhabenna is evidently the river Kanhan, which flows about 10 miles from Nagpur [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. III, p.46.] and not the river Krishna as is supposed by some scholars; for the latter flows not west but south-west of Udayagiri. Kharavela's army thus invaded Vidarbha. He knew that as the ruler of Vidarbha was a feudatory of King Satakarni, the latter would rush to his aid. When Vidarbha was thus invaded, the people of Rishika (Khandesh), which bordered Vidarbha on the west, were naturally terror-stricken. No actual engagement seems, however, to have taken place and the army returned to Kalinga perhaps at the approach of the Satavahana forces.

Satavahanas : Satakarni belonged to the Satavahana family. This family derived its name from king Satavahana, [Ibid., Vol. III, p. 1 f.] who rose to power soon after the death of Ashoka and had his capital at Pratishthana (modern Paithan in the Aurangabad district). It received support from the local rulers called Maharathis, with whom it formed matri­monial alliances. This family is called Andhra in the Puranas, but that it originally hailed from Western Maharashtra is indicated by its earliest  inscriptions which are found in the caves at Naneghat near Junnar and at Nasik. Its earliest coins issued by its founder Sata­vahana have been found at Aurangabad and in Vidarbha. In later times it extended its rule to Andhra as shown by its later inscriptions and coins found in that region, The Puranas call it Andhra evidently because it was ruling in that country when the Purana account was compiled in the early centuries of the Christian era.

Though Satavahana was the founder of the family, he is not mentioned in the Puranas. The first king of the Andhra (i.e., Satavahana) dynasty mentioned in the Puranas is Simukha (Shrimukha), who is also known from a relievo statue of his in a cave at Naneghat. We do not know the extent of his kingdom, but it must have comprised at least the Poona, Nasik, Ahmadnagar and Aurangabad districts. When he ended his rule, his son Satakarni was a minor and so his brother Krishna ascended the throne. He has left an inscription in  the cave which he got excavated for the Buddhist monks near Nasik. His Mahamatra (Governor), who is described as a Shramana of Nasik, is said to have caused it to be excavated. Krishna is described in this record as belonging to the Satavahana family. This indicates that he was not a son of Satavahana, but a grandson or some lower descendant.

The next ruler of the dynasty was Satakarni I, who also is known from a relievo figure now mutilated in the aforementioned cave at Nane­ghat. He seems to have extended his rule over the whole of the Deccan and even carried his arms north of the Narmada. King Kharavela of Kalinga, who was his contemporary, sent an army to the west, not minding Satakarni, who is probably this very ruler. When the army reached the Kanhabenna, which, as shown above, is probably identical with the river Kanhan flowing near Nagpur, it struck terror in the hearts of the people of Rishika (Khandesh). There was no clash of arms on this occasion, but two years later, Kharavela probably penetrated further west as he claims to have received submission from the Rathikas and the Bhojakas, who were probably ruling in the Deccan as feudatories of the Satavahanas [Ep. Ind., Vol. XX, p. 79].      .

Satakarni performed the Rajasuya and Ashvamedha sacrifices (the latter twice), which probably commemorated his important victories or supremacy in the Deccan and as such, had political significance. He performed also several other Shrauta sacrifices such as Agnyadheya, Aptoryama, Dasharatra, Trayodasharatra, Angirasatriratra, Shataratra, Gavamayana etc., all of which were marked by munificent gifts of horses, elephants and Karshapanas. They are recorded in a large but now sadly mutilated inscription in a cave at Naneghat.

Satakarni left behind two sons. Vedishri and Shaktishri, who are mentioned in the aforementioned Naneghat inscription.  It was believed for a long time that this record was incised during the minority of the former prince when his mother Naganika was acting as a regent; but this view is now shown to be erroneous. The inscription describes her as one who fasted during a whole month, who even in her house lived like an ascetic who led a self-restrained life and was well acquainted with initiatory ceremonies, vows and offerings. She had evidently lost all interest in worldly life and was devoting herself to religious practices. Such a lady is hardly likely to busy herself with the governing of an extensive kingdom like that of the Satavahanas. As a matter of fact, the inscription describes Vedishri as a very brave king, who was a unique warrior on the earth and was the lord of Dakshinapatha (Deccan) [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 76 f.].

Vedishri was followed by a number of princes who are named in the Puranic list but about whom they furnish little information except their reign-periods, which also vary in different Puranas and even in the manuscripts of the same Puranas. But one name among them is noteworthy. It is that of king HaIa, the reputed author of the Gathasaptashati, a unique collection of seven hundred Prakrit verses descriptive of the social, religious and economic life of the period. Hala flourished in the first century A.D. [1bid., Vol. I, p. 76 f.].

Some years after HaIa's reign Maharashtra was conquered by the Shaka Kshatrapas. Nahapana a Shaka Kshatrapa probably appointed by the contemporary Kushana Emperor, was ruling over Konkan, Poona, Nasik and some other districts of Maharashtra as well as some portion of Central India as far north as Ajmer. Several inscrip­tions of his son-in-law Ushavadata (Sanskrit, Rishabhadatta) have been incised in the Pandu-lena caves near Nasik. Ushavadata was the son of Dinika and had married Dakshamitra, the daughter of Nahapana. These records in the Nasik caves describe the charities and conquests of Ushavadata, who was evidently governing Northern Maharashtra and Konkan on behalf of his father-in-law. We learn that Ushavadata gave away three hundred thousand cows, constructed ghats on the river Barnasa, assigned sixteen villages to gods and Brahmanas, fed a hundred thousand Brahmanas every year, got eight Brahmanas of Prabhasa or Somnath Patan married at his expense, constructed rest-­houses, made gardens and, tanks at Bharukachchha (Broach), Dashapura (Mandasor in Malva), Govardhana (near Nasik) and Shorparaga (Sopara in the Thana district), provided ferry-boats at the rivers Iba, Parada, Damana, Tapi, Karabena arid Dahanuka and founded some benefactions in the village Nanangola for Brahmanas residing in Pinditakavada, Govardhana, Shorparaga and Ramatirtha: The same inscription further tells us that he marched to the north at the command of Nahapana and rescued, the Uttamabhadras who had been attacked by the Malayas (Malavas) and then proceeded to the holy tirtha Pushkara near Ajmer and there bathed and gave three thousand cows and a village in charity. He got a cave excavated in the Trirashmi hill near Nasik and assigned it to the Buddhist monks. He invested large sums of Karshapanas with the trade-guilds at Govardhana and assigned the Yearly interest on them for the maintenance and well-being of the monks living in the cave excavated by him [Ep. Ind., Vol. VIII, p. 82 f.]. In another inscription in the Cave-temple at Karla he is said to have assigned the village of Karajika for the maintenance of the Bhikshus living in the cave at Valuraka (Karla). [Ibid., Vol. VII, p. 57 f]. Another inscription at Nasik records the gifts made by his wife Dakshamitra. In an inscription at Junnar Ayama, the Amatya of Nahapana, has recorded his gifts of a mandapa and cistern evidently for the benefit of the monks living there. These inscriptions range in date from the years 41 to 46, which are usually referred to the Shaka era. Nahapana, therefore, flourished in the first quarter of the second century A.D.

Vidarbha also was under the rule of another Mahakshatrapa named Rupiamma, whose pillar inscription was recently discovered at Pavni in the Bhandara district [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. IV, p. 109 f.]. It records the erection of a chhaya-stambha or sculptured pillar at the place. The Satavahanas had, Therefore, to leave Western Maharashtra and Vidarbha. They seem to have repaired to their capital Pratishthana where they continued to abide waiting for a favourable opportunity to oust the Shaka invaders.

Later, Gautamiputra Satakarni retrieved the fortune of his family. He made a daring dash into Vidarbha and occupied Benakata (or the Wainganga district). Thereafter, he invaded Western Maharashtra and defeated Nahapana somewhere in the Nasik district. This is shown by his inscription in one of the Nasik caves, wherein he is called Benakatakasvami or the lord of Benakata (Wainganga district). He extended his rule to a large part of the peninsula, as his chargers are said to have drunk the water of the three oceans. The following provinces are specifically mentioned as comprised in his dominion: Rishika (Khandesh), Ashmaka (Ahmadnagar and Bid districts), Akara and Avanti (Eastern and Western Malva), Suratha (Kathiavad) and Aparanta (North Konkan). That his empire extended much farther is shown by the description that the mountains Setagiri (near Nagarjuna-kond). Shristana (in the Karnul district) and Mahendra (between the Godavari and the Krishna) were situated in his kingdom.

After defeating Nahapana, Gautamiputra called back his silver coins and restruck them. The hoard discovered at Jogaltembhi in the Nasik district contained more than 10,000 silver coins so restruck.

 He himself issued a large number of potin coins with the figure of an elephant with uplifted trunk on the obverse and the Ujjain symbol on the reverse [Mirashi, Studies in Indo logy. VoI. III, p. 38 f:] In the hoard of potin coins found at Tarhala in the Akola, district of Vidarbha, out of nearly 1,200 decipherable coins, as many as 575 were of Gautamiputra.          

 Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vasishthiputra Pulumavi, who also ruled over a large  kingdom, but seems to have lost some northern provinces like Akaravanti (Malva) and Surashtra (Kathiavad) to the Kshatrapas. He is mentioned by Ptolemy as ruling at Pratishthana. He was succeeded by his brother Vasishthiputra Satakarni, who married a daughter of the Shaka Kshatrapa Rudradaman I. Among his successors the most noteworthy was Yajnashri Satakarni, whose inscriptions and coins have been found over a large area. They show that he ruled over a large kingdom extending from Konkan in the west to Andhradesha in the east. He issued among other types the ship-type lead coins indicative of his rule on the maritime province of the Coromandel coast. [Ibid., Vol. III, p. 17 f.]

Within fifty years after Yajnashri Satakarni the rule of the Satavahanas came to an end. The Satavahanas were liberal patrons of learning and religion. As stated above, the early kings of the family performed Vedic sacrifices and lavished gifts on the Brahmanas. Krishna, Gautamiputra, Pulumavi and Yajnashri excavated caves and donated villages to provide for the maintenance, clothing and medicines of the Buddhist monks. As stated above, the Gathasaptashati (or Sattasai), an anthology of 700 Prakrit verses is, by tradition, ascribed to Hala of this family. Another Prakrit work of the age was the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya. It was written in the Paishachi Prakrit. The original Prakrit work is not extant now, but two Sanskrit versions of it; viz., the Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva and the Brihatkathamanjari of Kshemendra, are well known. Gunadhya was a native of the town of Supratishtha, which, from references in some grants of the Vakatakas, is known to have been situated in the Hinganghat tahsil of Wardha district [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 65  f]. It may be identical with the village Pothra, situated on a small river of the same name, which joins the Wardha.

During the age of the Satavahanas the Nasik district was very prosperous. It lay on the highway from Tagara and Pratishthana to Broach and was an important trading centre. Tagara, modern Ter in the Osmanabad district, is mention ed in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea as one of the two famous trading centres, the other being Pratishthana, modern Paithan in the Aurangabad district. From there various kinds of merchandise were taken to Barygaza (Broach). From Pratishthana a great quantity of onyx stone and from Tagara, a plentiful supply of fine linen cloth and all kinds of muslins and maIIow-coloured stuffs and several other kinds of merchandise were carried by wagons to the ports on the western coast. Nasik, which lay on these routes, must have greatly prospered by this trade.

Abhiras : About A.D. 250, the Satavahanas were supplanted by the Abhiras in Western Maharashtra and by the Vakatakas in Vidarbha. The founder of the Abhira dynasty was Rajan Ishvarasena, the son of Shivadatta, who has left an inscription in cave IX at Nasik. It records the investment of hundreds of Karshapanas in certain guilds at Nasik for providing medicines for the sick among the Buddhist mendicants residing in the Viharas of Trirashmi, the bin where several caves had been excavated by the Satavahanas and the Kshatrapas. Ishvarasena started an era commencing in A.D. 250, which later became known as the Kalachuri-Chedi era. The earlier dates of this era come from Northern Maharashtra, Gujarat, Central India and Vidarbha. Judging by the expansion of this era, Ishvarasena and his descendants seem to have ruled a large territory comprising Gujarat, Konkan and Northern Maharashtra [Mirashi, Inscriptions of the Kalachuri-Chedi Era (C. I. I. Vol. IV), p. xxxiv] Ishvarasena was followed by nine other kings of the family whose names unfortu­nately do not occur in the Puranas. They only state that they rule for 167 years. From the inscription on a casket recently discovered during excavations at Devni Mori in Gujarat we know the name of one more king, viz., Rudrasena. The name of this Abhira family, viz., Kathika has also become known from the same source. Rudrasena was ruling in the year 127 of the Abhira era,[ Mirashi, Studies  in Indology, Vol. IV, p. 120 f.] corresponding to A.D. 376-77. The Abhiras were later supplanted by their feudatories the Traikutakas in circa A.D. 415.

Traikutakas: The Traikutakas took their family name from the mountain Trikuta which borders the Nasik district on the west. The names of three Traikutaka kings, viz., Indradatta, Dahrasena and Vyaghrasena have become known from their inscriptions and coins found in the Nasik district and Gujarat. Dahrasena performed an Ashvamedha and was, therefore, an independent king. A copper-plate grant discovered at Pardi in the Surat district records the donation, by Dahrasena, of the village Kaniyas-Tadakasarika in the Antarmandali vishaya to a Brahmana residing at Kapura. This vishaya comprised .the territory on both the banks of the river Mindhola. The donated village is probably identical with Tarsari in the Vyara sub-division of the Surat district. Kapura still retains its ancient name and is situated three miles from Vyara [C. I. I., Vol. IV. p.  22  f.]. Dahrasena was succeeded by his son Vyaghrasena who had to acknowledge the supremacy of the Vakataka king Harishena. His copper-plate grant, dated in the year 241 (A.D. 490) of the Abhira era was discovered at Surat and records the donation of the village Purohita-palIika (modern Pal two miles west of Surat)[ Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 25 f.]. The coins of both these kings have been found in Gujarat and Maharashtra. They have the head of the king on the obverse and the chaitya or hill with the sun to the left and the respective legend round the edge inside a circle of dots. The hoard of these coins discovered at Indapur in the Poona district contained as many as 353 coins[Ibid., Vol. IV, p. clxxix f.].

Vakatakas: After the downfall of the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas rose to power in Vidarbha. This dynasty was founded by a Brahmana named Vindhyashakti I, who is mentioned in the Puranas as well as in an inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta. His son Pravarasena I, called Pravira in the Puranas, ousted Shishuka, the daughter's son of Naga king of Vidisha, who was ruling at Purika at the foot of the Rikshavat (Satpuda) mountain. Pravarasena I ruled over an exten­sive part, of the Deccan. He performed several Vedic sacrifices including four Ashvamedhas and assumed the title Samrat (Emperor). According to the Puranas, he ruled from the aforementioned city of Purika. He had four sons among whom his extensive empire was divided after his death. Two of these are known from inscriptions. The eldest was Gautamiputra, who predeceased him. His son Rudrasena I held the northern part of Vidarbha and ruled from Nandivardhana near Ramtek in the Nagpur district. He had the powerful support of king Bhavanaga of the Bharashiva family, who ruled from Padmavati in the former" Gwalior State and who was his maternal grandfather. Rudrasena I was a fervent devotee of Mahabhairava. He had therefore no regard for the ahimsa precepts of Ashoka. He got some portion of the aforementioned Devtek inscription of Ashoka's Dharmamahamatra chiselled off and had his own record incised in its place [C. I. I., Vol. V, P. xxi.].  The latter proclaims the construction of his dharmasthana (temple) at Chikamburi (modern Chikmara near Devtek).

Rudrasena I was followed by his. son Prithivishena I, who ruled for a .long time and brought peace and prosperity to his people. During his reign this branch of the Vakatakas became matrimonially connected with the illustrious Gupta family of North India. Chandragupta II Vikramaditya married his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Prithivishena's son Rudrasena II probably after securing the Vakataka king's aid in his war with the Western Kshatrapas of Malva and Kathiavad. Rudrasena II died soon after accession, leaving behind two sons, Divakarasena and Damodarasena alias Pravarasena II. As neither of them had come of age, Prabhavatigupta ruled as regent for her elder son Divakarasena for at least thirteen years. She seems to have been helped in the administration of the kingdom by the military and civil officers sent by her father Chandragupta II. One of these was the great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, who, while residing at the Vakataka capital Nandivardhana, must have often visited Ramagiri (modern Ramtek), which lay only three miles away. The theme of his excellent lyric Meghaduta seems to have suggested itself to him at this place.

Prabhavatigupta has left us two copper-plate grants. The earlier of these, though discovered in distant Poona, originally belonged to the Wardha district of Vidarbha. It was issued from the then Vakataka capital Nandivardhana and records the dowager queen's grant of the village Danguna (modern Hinganghat in the Wardha district) to a Brahmana after offering it to the feet of the Bhagavat (i,e., the god Ramchandra) on Karttika shukla dvadashi evidently after observ­ing a fast on the previous day of the Prabodhini Ekadashi. Some of the boundary villages mentioned in the grant can still be traced in the vicinity of Hinganghat. They are described as situated in the ahara or territorial division of Supratishtha. The latter seems to have comprised roughly the territory now included in the Hinganghat tahsil [ C. I. I., Vol. V, p. 6 f].

Divakarasena also seems to have died when quite young. He was succeeded by his brother Damodarasena, who on accession, assumed the name Pravarasena of his illustrious ancestor. He had a long reign of more than thirty years, and was known for his learning and liberality. More than a dozen  grants made by him have come to light. One of them made at the instance of his mother Prabhavati­gupta in the nineteenth regnal year is noteworthy. The plates record­ing the grant were issued from the feet) of Ramagirisvamin (i.e., god Ramachandra on the hill Ramagiri, modern Ramtek) and register the grant which the queen had made as on the previous occasion, after observing a fast on the Prabodhini Ekadashi [Ibid., Vol. V, p. 34 f.].

Pravarasena II founded a new city, which he named Pravarapura and where he shifted his capital some time after his eleventh regnal year. He built there a magnificent temple of Ramachandra evidently at the instance of his mother, who was a devout worshipper of that god. Some of the sculptures used to decorate the temple have recently been discovered at Pavnar on the bank of the Dham, six miles from Wardha and have led to the identification of Pravarapura with Pavnar in the Wardha district [Mirashi. Studies in Indology, Vol. II p. 272 f.]

Pravarasena II is the reputed author of the Setubandha, a Prakrit kavya in glorification of Ramachandra. This work has been highly praised by Sanskrit poets and rhetoricians. According to a tradition recorded by a commentator of this work, it was composed by Kalidasa. who ascribed it to Pravarasena by the order of Vikramaditya (i.e., Chandragupta II). Pravarasena II is also known as the author of some Prakrit gathas, which were later incorporated in the Gatha­saptashati [Ibid., Vol. I, p. 81 f.].

Pravarasena II was succeeded by his son Narendrasena, during whose reign Vidarbha was invaded by the Nala king Bhavadattavarman. The latter penetrated as far as the Nagpur district and even occupied 'Nandivardhana, the erstwhile capital of the Vakatakas. The Riddhapur plates record the grant which Bhavadatta made while on a pilgrimage to Prayaga. The plates were issued later from Nandi­vardhana, which was evidently his capital at the time [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXX, p. 100 f.]. In this emergency the Vakatakas had to shift their capital again. They moved it to Padmapura near Amgaon in the Bhandara district. A fragmentary copper-plate inscription which was proposed to be issued from Padmapura, has been discovered at the village Mohalla in, the adjoining Durga district of Madhya Pradesh. This Padmapura is probably identical with the birth-place of the great Sanskrit playwright Bhava­bhuti, who flourished there in a later age.

The Nalas could not retain their hold over Vidarbha for a long time. They were ousted by Narendrasena's son Prithivishena II, who carried the war into the enemy's territory and burnt and devastated their capital Pushkari, which was situated in the Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh. Prithivishena II, taking advantage of the decline of the Gupta power, carried his arms to the north of the Narmada. Inscriptions of his feudatory Vyaghradeva have been found in the former Ajaygad and Jaso States in Central India [C. I. I., Vol. V, p. 89 f.].

The elder branch of the Vakataka family came to an end in circa A.D. 490. The territory under its rule was thereafter included in the dominion of the other or Vatsagulma branch, to which we may now turn.

The Vatsagulma branch was founded by  Sarvasena, a younger son of Pravarasena I, Its capital was at Vatsagulma, modern Basim (Vashim) in the Akola district of Vidarbha. This branch also produced some brave and learned princes. Sarvasena, the founder of this branch, is well known as the author of the Prakrit kavya Harivijaya, which has for its theme the bringing down of the Parijata tree from heaven. This kavya has received unstinted praise from several eminent rhetoricians like Anandavardhana [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. V, p. 89 f.].

Sarvasena was followed by his son Vindhyasena, called Vindhyashakti II in the Basim plates, which were issued in the 37th regnal year. These plates record the grant of a village situated in the, northern marga (sub-division) of Nandikata (modern Nanded, the headquarters of the district of that name in the Marathwada Division) [ C. I. I., Vol. V, p. 93 f].    

Vindhyasena pursued a vigorous policy and defeated the lord of Kuntala, who probably belonged to the Early Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manapura as shown below. Like his father and grandfather, he assumed the title of Dharmamaharaja. His Basim plates record the earliest known grant of the Vakatakas. The genealogical portion of the grant is written in Sanskrit and the formal portion in Prakrit. This shows how the classical language was gradually asserting itself under the patronage of the Vakatakas. All the earlier inscriptions of the Satavahanas are in Prakrit, while all the later grants of the Vakatakas are in Sanskrit.

Vindhyasena II was followed by his son Pravarasena II, about whom little is known. The Ajanta inscription says that he became exalted by his excellent, powerful and liberal rule. He seems to have had a short reign; for, when he died, his son was only eight years old. The name of this boy prince is lost in the Ajanta inscription. He was followed by his son Devasena, whose fragmentary copper-p late inscription is now deposited in the India Office [C. I. I., Vol. V, p. 101 f], London. Another record of his reign, inscribed on stone, was recently discovered near Basim. It is dated in the Shaka year 380 (A.D. 458-59), and records the excavation of a tank named Sudarshana by Svaminadeva, a servant of  Devasena [Dr, Mirashi Felicitation Volume, p. 372 f.].

Devasena was succeeded in circa A.D. 475  by his son Harishena. He carried his arms in all directions. A mutilated verse in the inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta states that he conquered Avanti (Malva) in the north, Kosala (Chhattisgadh), Kalinga and Andhra in the east, Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat) and Trikuta (Nasik district) in the west and Kuntala (Southern Maratha Country) in the south[C. I. I. Vol. V, p. 106 f]. He thus became the undisputed suzerain of the entire country extending from Malva in the north to Kuntala in the south and from the Arabian Sea in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the east.

Harishena is the last known Vakataka ruler. As we have seen, he had an extensive empire in the Deccan. The causes that led to the sudden disintegration of that great empire have not been recorded in history, but the last chapter of the Dashakumaracharita of Dandin, who flourished only about 125 years after the fall of the Vakatakas, seems to have preserved a living tradition abort the last period of Vakataka rule [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol.I, p.165 f.]. It seems that Harishena's son, though intelligent and accomplished in all arts, neglected the study of the Science of Politics (Dandaniti). He gave himself up to the enjoyment of pleasures and indulged in all sorts of vices, neglecting the affairs of the State. His subjects imitated him and led a vicious and dissolute life. Finding this a suitable opportunity, the crafty ruler of the neighbouring Ashmaka country sent his minister's son to the court of Vidarbha. The latter ingratiated himself with the king and egged him on in his dissolute life. He also decimated his forces by various means. Ultimately, when the country was thoroughly disorganised, the ruler of Ashmaka instigated the ruler of Vanavasi (in the North Kanara district) to invade Vidarbha. The king of Vidarbha called all feudatories to his aid and decided to give battle to the enemy on the bank of Varada (Wardha). But while he was fighting with the forces of the invader, he was treacherously attacked in the rear by some of his own feudatories: and was killed on the battlefield. Thus ended the Vakataka dynasty after a glorious rule of two hundred and fifty years.

The Vakatakas were patrons of art and literature. In their age the Vaidarbhi riti came to be regarded as the best style of poetry and several excellent poetical works were then produced in Vidarbha. Kalidasa also adopted the same riti for his works. Some Prakrit kavyas were also produced in this period, two of which, viz., the Harivijaya of Sarvasena and the Setubandha of Pravarasena, have been mentioned above. Three of the caves at Ajanta, viz., the two Vihara caves XVI and XVII and the Chaitya cave XIX were excavated and decorated with painting and sculptures in the time of Harishena. Several temples of Hindu gods and goddesses were also built. The ruins of one of these have come to light at Pavnar [Mirashi, Studies in lndology, Vol. II, p. 272 f.]. Others are known from references in copper-plate grants.

According to the Puranas, the Vakataka king Pravarasena I had four sons, all of whom ruled as kings. As stated before, the eldest of them was Gautamiputra, whose son Rudrasena I founded the Nandivardhana branch. The second was Sarvasena, who established himself at Vatsagulma. Where the remaining two sons were ruling is not known definitely. But one of them may have been ruling over Southern Maharashtra. He seems to have been overthrown by Mananka, the founder of the Early Rashtrakuta family. The history of this family has been unfolded during the last few years. From three copper-plate grants which have been discovered in Southern Maharashtra, we. Get the following genealogy [lbid., Vol. I, p. 178 f.]­ :--

			Manaka
			Devaraja
Mana alias Vibhuraja			Avidheya			Bhavishya
						Abhimanyu

Mananka, the progenitor of the family, flourished in circa A.D. 350. He founded Manapura, which he made his capital. He is described in one of the grants as the illustrious ruler of the Kuntala country. As stated before, Kuntala was the name of the upper Krishna valley in ancient times. The places mentioned in some of the grants can be identified in the Satara and Kolhapur districts. Their capital Manapura is probably identical with Man, the headquarters of the Man taluka of the Satara district. ­

These Rashtrakutas of Manapura sometimes came into conflict with the Vakatakas of the Vatsagulma branch. The Pandarangapalli plates of Avidheya state that Mananka harassed the rulers of  Ashmaka and Vidarbha. On the other hand, an inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta states that the Vakataka king Vindhyasena (Vindhyashakti II) defeated the king of Kuntala, who evidently belonged to this Rashtrakuta family.

From certain passages in the Kuntaleshvaradautya, a Sanskrit work ascribed to Kalidassa, which have been cited in the Kavyamimamsa of Rajashekhara, the Shringaraprakasha and the Sarasvatikanthabharana of Bhoja and the Auchityavicharacharcha of Kshemendra, we learn that the famous Gupta king Chandragupta II—Vikramaditya sent Kalidasa to the court  of the king of Kuntsalas.  Kalidassa was at first not well received there, but he gradually gained the Kuntalesha’s favour and stayed at his court for some time. When he returned, he reported to Vikramaditry that the lord of Kuntala was spending his time in enjoyment, throwing the responsibility of governing the kingdom of him (i.e., on Vikramaditya). This Kuntalesha was probably indentical with Devaraja, the son of Mananka [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 10.]. Through the influence of Chndragupta II the two royal families of the south, viz., the Vakatakas and the Early Rashtrakutas were reconciled with each other. Later, Harishena, the last known Vakataka ruler, raided Kuntala and exacted a trubute from its king. It is noteworthy that in the eighth uchchhvasa of the Dashakumaracharita the king of Kuntala is described as a feudatory of the Emperor of Vidarbha.

Contemporary with the Vakatakas of Vidarbha and the Early Rashtrakutas of Kuntala there was a Shaka family ruling over the Mahishaka country comprising the Osmanabad, Sholapur and Bijapur districts. The founder of this family was the Shakas king Mana who is mentioned in the Puranas so the ruler of the Mahishas, i.e., of the Mahishaka country [Ibid., Vol. III, p.69.]. The mention of his name in the Puranas indicates that he was a very powerful king, ruling over an extensive territory. His coins have been found at Hyderabad and during excavations at Kondapur in the Medak tahsil and at Maski in the  Lingasur tahsil of the Raichur district. The coins found at Kondapur have, on the obverse, a big svastika in the center with the legend Mahasenapatisa Bharadajaputasa Saga-Manachuta-kulasa (meaning, ‘this coin is of the Shaka king, son of Bharadvaja, who is Mahasenapati and belongs to the Chutu family’) [Ibid., Vol. III, p. 67 f.]. The coins have on the reverse the thunderbolt and n arrow pointing downwards, which connect them with the coins of Nahapana, which also have the same devices. It seems therefore that after the extermination of Nahapana by the Satavahana king Cautamiputra Satakarni, some of his Shakas descendants escaped to the Mahishaka country, where in course of time they carved out a small  kingdom. Mana, who, on the evidence of the palaeography of his coin-legends, can be referred to circa A.D. 250, seems to have come to power at about the downfall of the Satavahanas. At first he issued his coins with the title of Mahasenapati. Perhaps he had not proclaimed his independence at the time; but later he issued other coins with the legend Rano Saga-Mana-Mahasasa (i.e., the coin is of the Shaka king Mana of the Mahisha dynasty) [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. III, p. 56 f.]. These coins  which proclaim his title of Rajan, were evidently struck when he became independent.

This Shaka family ruled over the southern parts of the former Hyderabad State and the adjoining Kanarese districts for some generations. The Puranas say that among the successors of the Andhras (i.e., the Satavahanas) there were 18 Shaka kings, who ruled for 183 years. The Puranas unfortunately do not name these rulers, but some of them have become known by the recent discoveries of their coins. These, kings of the Shaka origin probably used the Shaka era in dating their records as their ancestor -Nahapana is known to have done. This era was probably current throughout their dominions, which comprised the southern parts of the former Hyderabad State and the adjoining Bijapur and Dharvar districts. The era was later taken up by the. Chalukyas of Badami when they rose to power in the sixth century A.D. When the Chalukyas conquered Maharashtra and Vidarbha they introduced the era there. Since then it has been current there [Ibid., Vol. II, p. 85 f].

Vishnukundins:  After the downfall of the Vakatakas in the beginning of the sixth century A.D. Vidarbha was occupied for some time by the Vishnukundin king Madhavavarman I. This is shown by the Vishnukundin coins found at Pavnar and some other places in Vidarbha [These are under publication in J. N. S. I.]. Madhavavarman was a very powerful ruler. He married a Vakataka princess who was probably a daughter or some other near relative of the last known Vakataka Emperor Harishena. He took advantage of the opportunity afforded by the downfall of the Vakatakas and extended his dominion far and Wide. He performed several Vedic sacrifices including eleven Ashvamedhas. That he had brought even Western Maharashtra under his rule is shown by his copper-plate grant discovered at Khanapur in the Satara district [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVII, .p. 312 f.]. His grandson Madhavavarman II describes himself as the lord of Trikuta and Malaya. So he may have ruled in Western Maharashtra for some time.

Kalachuris: The Vishnukundins were, however, ousted from Maharashtra and Vidarbha by the Kalachuri king Krishnaraja, who rose to power in about A.D. 550. He ruled from Mahishmati, modern Maheshvara, in the former Indore State. His coins have been found over a wide territory extending from Rajputana in the north to Maharashtra in the south in the village Devlana in the Baglan taluka of the Nasik district. The hoard comprised 82 coins. They resemble the silver coins of the Guptas and the Traikutakas  which  were struck to the Graeco-Bactrian weight standard of the hemidrachma. But while the Kshatrapa and the Traikutaka coins have the symbols of the chaitya (or a hill), the sun and the moon, these coins of Krishna-raja have, like some western issues of Skandagupta, the figure of a couchant bull, facing right in the centre on the reverse side. They have the legend Parama-Maheshvara-mata-pitripad-anudhyata-shri-Krishnaraja (meaning that the coin is of the illustrious Krishnaraja, who is a devout worshipper of Maheshvara and who meditates on the feet of his mother and father) [C.I.I., Vol. IV, p. clxxx f.].The coins were known as Krishnarajarupakas and have been mentioned in the Anjaneri plates dated in the year 461 of the Abhira era (corresponding to A.D. 710-11). They were therefore in circulation for at least 150 years after the time of Krishnaraja. These coins have been found at Dhamori in the Amravati district of Vidarbha. That Vidarbha was included in the Empire of the Kalachuri king Krishnaraja is also shown by the Nagardhan plates of his feudatory Svamiraja, dated in the year 322 (A.D. 573) of the Abhira era [Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 611 f]. The plates were issued from Nandivardhana, which seems to have retained its importance even after the downfall of the Vakatakas. Svamiraja, who issued, the plates, probably belonged to the Rashtrakuta family.

Krishnaraja was succeeded by his son Shankaragana, whose copper­plate, grant has been discovered at Abhona in the Nasik District [Ibid., Vol. IV; p. 38 f.]. It is dated in the year 347 of the Abhira era, corresponding to A.D. 597. It, records the gift of some nivartanas, of land in the village Vallisika situated in the vishaya (district) of Bhogavardhana (modern Bhokardhan in the Aurangabad district). Vallisika is modern Valsa, 7 miles south of Bhokardhan. The donee was a Brahmana, residing at Kallivana (modern Kalvan, the chief town of a taluka of the same name in the Nasik district). Some other inscriptions of Shankaragana have been discovered in Gujarat. The plates were issued from the king's camp at Ujjayini. The grant shows that Shankaragana was, like his father, ruling over an extensive kingdom stretching from Malva in the north to at least the Nasik and Aurangabad districts in the south.    

Shankaragana was succeeded by his son Buddharaja, who was involved in a struggle with the Chalukya king Mangalesha on the southern frontier of his kingdom soon after his accession. Before we describe this engagement, we must briefly review the history of the Early Chalukyas of Badami.

Chalukyas of Badami: The Chalukyas of Badami rose to power in the first half of the sixth century A.D. The Badami stone inscrip­tion of Pulakeshin I, who is the first independent ruler of this dynasty, is dated in A.D.543 [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVII, p. 312 f]. He performed the Ashvamedha and several other Shrauta sacrifices. He was succeeded by his son Kirtivarman I, who made some conquests in South India and is described as the night of destruction to the Nalas (of the Bastar district), the Mauryas of Konkan and the Kadambas of Vanavasi (in North Kanara).

When Kirtivarman died, his son Pulakeshin II was a minor. So his younger brother Mangalesha succeeded him. He defeated Buddharaja, the Kalachuri king, who was ruling in North Maharashtra, Konkan, Gujarat and Malva and also Svamiraja of the Chalukya family, who was governing the Revati-dvipa (modern Redi in the Ratnagiri district). The Aihole inscription [Ep. Ind., Vol. VI. p I I.]  describes this fight as follows: "In the temple in the form of the battle-field, Mangalesha married the lady in the form of the royal fortune of the Katachchhuris (i.e., the Kalachuris) dispelling the mass of darkness in the form of the enemy's elephants by means of hundreds of blazing torches which were the swords of his warriors."  The description shows that Buddha-raja was completely routed and fled away, leaving his whole treasure behind, which was captured by Mangalesha. The latter could not however follow up this victory; for just then Svamiraja of the Chalukya family, a redoubtable warrior who had attained Victory in eighteen battles and was ruling over Revatidvipa, rose in rebellion. Mangalesha had, therefore, to abandon his original plan of making an expedition of conquest in North India and rushed to Konkan to chastise the rebellious feudatory. In the fight that ensued he killed Svamiraja and made a grant of a village in South Konkan to the god in the temple of Mahakuta. So Buddharaja continued to rule in Maharashtra for some years even after his defeat by Mangalesha.

Mangalesha's reign ended in disaster and he lost his life in a civil war with his nephew Pulakeshin II. Just about this time the Chalukya kingdom was invaded from  the north by one Govinda who probably belonged to the aforementioned Rashtrakuta family ruling in Southern Maharashtra. Pulakeshin adopted conciliatory measures in dealing with him  as he was a powerful foe. His descendants do not, however, appear to have held Maharashtra for a long time; for Pulakeshin soon annexed both Southern and Northern Maharashtras and extended the northern boundary of his Empire to the Narmada. That he ousted the Rashtrakutas from Southern Maharashtra is shown by the Satara plates of his brother Vishnuvardhana, which record the grant of a Village on the southern bank of the Bhima. Pulakeshin defeated also the Kalachuri king Buddharaja and annexed his kingdom. He is said to have thereby become the lord of three Maharashtras, including Vidarbha. The Rashtrakutas of Vidarbha, who were previously feudatories of the Kalachuris, transferred their allegiance to the Chalukyas of Badami and like the latter began to date their records in the Shaka era. Two grants of this feudatory Rashtrakuta family have been found in Vidarbha - one, dated Shaka 615, was found near Akola and the other, dated Shaka 631, was discovered at Multai in the Betul district previously included in Vidarbha. They give the following genealogy [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXIX, p. 109 f; Ind. Ant., Vol., XVllI, p:. 230 f:] : -

Pulakeshin obtained a resounding victory over Harsha, the lord paramount of North India. Thereafter, he assumed the title of Parameshvara (Emperor). He defeated the rulers of several countries such as Aparanta (Konkan), Kosala (Chhattisgadh), Kalinga (Orissa), Pishtapura (Pithapuram) and Kanchi (Conjeeverum). He made the Cholas, the Keralas and the Pandyas his allies. He thus became the undisputed lord of North India.

The capital of Pulakeshin in the beginning of his reign was Badami in the Bijapur district. When his empire extended to the Narmada, he must have felt the need of a more central place for his capital The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang calls him the lord of Maharashtra. This shows that he must have visited him somewhere in Maharashtra. Several identifications of his capital have been proposed by scholars from the description of it given by the Chinese pilgrim, but the most likely view seems to be that of Fleet and Burgess, who identify it with Nasik. The pilgrim says that in the east of this country (viz., Maharashtra) was a mountain range with ridges one above another in succession, tiers of peaks and sheer summits. Here was a monastery the base of which was in a dark defile, and its lofty halls and deep chambers were quarried in the cliff and rested on the peaks, its tiers of halls and storeyed terraces had the cliff on their back and faced the ravine [Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 239.]. This description seems to suit the caves at Ajanta and as this monastery lay to the east of the capital, the latter appears to be Nasik rather than any other place in Maharashtra. Hiuen Tsang has left a graphic picture of Maharashtra and its people. "The soil is rich and fertile. The climate is hot; the disposition of the people is honest and simple; they are tall of stature and of a stern vindictive character. To their benefactors they are grateful; to their enemies, relentless. If they are insulted they win risk their lives to avenge themselves. If they are asked to help one in distress, they win forget themselves in their haste to render assistance. If they are going to seek revenge, they first give their enemies a warning; then, each being armed, they    attack each other with spears …….If a general loses battle, they do not inflict punishment, but present him women's clothes, and so he is driven to seek death for himself. Each time they are about to engage in conflict they intoxicate themselves with wine and then one man with a lance in hand win meet ten thousand and challenge them to a fight. Moreover, they inebriate many hundred heads of elephants, which, rushing forward in mass, trample every thing down so that no enemy can stand before them. The king, in consequence of possessing such men, and elephants, treats his neighbours with contempt. He is of the Kshatriya caste and his name is Pulakeshin [S. Deal, Buddhist Records of the Western World (pub. by Sushil Gupta), Vol. IV, p. 448 f.].”

After the overthrow of the Kalachuris, Pulakeshin II divided their extensive kingdom among his relatives and trusted chiefs. Southern Gujarat extending from the Kim in the north to the Damanganga in the south was placed in charge of a Sendraka chief. The Sendrakas ruled over this territory as also in Khandesh for three generations. The founder of the family was Bhanushakti alias Nikumbha. His son was  Adityashakti and the latter's son was  Allashakti. Only four grants of this family have been published so far. Three of them were made by Allashakti. The earliest of them, is dated in the year 404 of the Abhira  era (A.D. 653) and registers the donation of some land in the village Pippalikheta (modern Pimpalner about 45 miles west of Dhulia in Khandesh) [C.I. I., Vol. IV, p. 110f.] This grant shows that Allashakti was ruling over Khandesh also. Another grant of the Sendrakas was found at Mundakhede in   Khandesh. It was made by  Allashakti's son Jayashakti and, is dated in  the Shaka year 602 (A.D. 680). These grants show that the Sendrakas were ruling in Khandesh also. Another grant of Allashakti has been  found at Bagumra in Gujarat and is dated in the year 406 of  the  Abhira era[Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 106 f]. It records the grant of the village Balisa (modern Wanesa in the Bardoli taluka of the Surat district).  After the issue of the Bagumra plates the Sendrakas were ousted from southern Gujarat and their rule was confined to Khandesh.

Pulakeshin's own grant dated in the Shaka year 552 (A.D. 630) was found at Lohaner in the Baglana taluka of the Nasik district. It is dated in the Shaka year 552 (A.D. 630) and records Pulakeshin's grant of the village Goviyanaka to a Brahmana residing at Lohanagara (modern Lohaner) [Khare, Sources of the Mediaeval History of the Deccan (Marathi), Vol. I, p. 1 f.].

Pulakeshin was killed in battle at Badami in circa A.D. 642 by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman, who conquered Vatapi and assumed the title of Vatapi-konda (the conqueror of Vatapi).

Pulakeshin II was succeeded by his son Vikramaditya I (A.D. 655­681), after a long continued struggle. He appointed his younger brother Dharashraya-Jayasimha to govern South Gujarat, North Konkan and the Nasik district. Jayasimha's Nasik plates are dated in the Abhira year 436 (A.D. 685) and record his grant of the village Dhondhaka on the occasion of the Vishuva or vernal equinox. Dhondhaka is identical with Dhondegaon, 12 miles north by west of Nasik. The plates contain an interesting reference to Jayasimha's victory over: Vajjada in the country between the Mahi and the Narmada. It seems that some king named Vajjada (or Vajrata) invaded the country of the Gurjaras who were feudatories of the Early Chalukyas. The Gurjara king sought the help of his suzerain Vikramaditya I.  The latter ordered Jayasimha to proceed to the north for the rescue of the Gurjara feudatory. He won a decisive victory which is placed on a par with Pulakeshin’s brilliant victory over Harsha and is mentioned as one of the most glorious achievements of the Western Chalukyas in many records of their political successors, the Rashtrakutas. This Vajjada was probably identical with Shiladitya III, the king of Valabhi in Kathiavad. Vikramaditya then appointed Jayasimha to govern South Gujarat, ousting the Sendrakas who were previously ruling there. Jayasimha appointed his son Shryashraya Shiladitya to rule in Southern Gujarat as Yuvaraja. Two inscriptions of Shryashraya dated in the years 421 and 423 have been discovered in Gujarat recording his grants of land in Southern Gujarat. That he was ruling on behalf of his father is indicated not only by his title Yuvaraja mentioned in them but also by the seal of the latter grant  which bears the legend Dharashraya. Shryashraya pre-deceased his father Jayasimha-Dharashraya[C. I. I., Vol. IV, p. Ix t.].

Jayasimha's younger son Mangalarasa, who assumed the biruda Jayashraya, is known to have made some land-grants in North Konkan. His capital was Mangalapuri, which was evidently founded by him. He was later appointed to govern South Gujarat after the death of his elder brother Shryashraya-Shiladitya. He placed his younger brother Avanijanashraya-Pulakeshin in charge of the territory. .

During the reign of Vikramaditya II, a later descendant of Pulakeshin II, Gujarat was invaded by a formidable force of the Tajikas or Arabs. The Navasari plates of Avanijanashraya-Pulakeshin, who was ruling over South Gujarat, give a graphic description of the battle. The Arabs had already defeated the Saindhavas, the Chavotakas, the Surashtras, the Mauryas and the Gurjaras and were attempting to penetrate into the Dakshinapatha (Deccan), but Avanijanashraya ­Pulakeshin inflicted a crushing defeat on them. The Chalukya Emperor then honoured Avanijanashraya with several titles, one of which was Anivartaka-nivartyitri (the Repeller of the unrepellable) [C. I. I., Vol IV, p. 138 f].

From two land-grants [Ibid., Vol. IV, p. lxvi f.] recently discovered at Anjaneri, a village near Trimbak in the Nasik district, we have come to know of a feudatory family which ruled over Northern Konkan and the Nasik district in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. This family claimed descent from Harishchandra, the famous legendary king of the Solar race. Svamichandra, who rose to power in the reign of Vikramaditya I, was the founder of this family, and flourished in circa A.D. 660. Three generations of this family are known from the two sets of Anjaneri plates-Svamichandra, his son Simhavarman and the latter's son Bhogashakti alias Prithivichandra, who made the two grants. One of them is dated in the year 461 of the Abhira era, corresponding to A.D. 710-11. It records the grant of eight villages and certain rites, dues and taxes in favour of the god Narayana, who was named Bhogeshvara evidently after king Bhogashakti, and was installed in a temple at Jayapura, modern Jarwar Budrukh near Anjaneri. Bhogashakti is said to have brought by his valour the whole territory of his dominion under his sway. This was probably at the time of Vinayaditya's death (A.D. 696) when owing to the captivity of his son Vijayaditya. there was anarchy in the kingdom. The second set of Anjaneri plates tells us that Bhogashakti granted certain right, privileges and exemptions to the merchants of Samagiripattana when he resettled the town and the neighbouring villages some time after their devastation. Bhogashakti's  successor was probably overthrown by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga, who, from his Ellora plates, is known to have occupied the Nasik district some time before A.D. 715.

Kirtivarman, the last of the Early Chalukyas, was defeated by Dantidurga some time before A.D. 754, when lie issued his Samangad plates. Kirtivarman continued to rule for a few years more, but he had lost the paramount position in the Deccan.

Rashtrakutas : The Rashtrakutas who succeeded the Chalukya in the Deccan originally hailed from Lattalura (modern Latur in the Osmanabad district). When they rose to power they were probably residing in the Aurangabad district, where their earlier records have been found. Dantidurga was the real founder of the Rashtrakuta imperial power. His Ellora cave inscription mentions five ancestors beginning with Dantivarman, but we know nothing about them. These earlier members of the family were probably feudatories of the Early Chalukyas. Dantidurga made extensive conquests. The Ellora cave inscription records his victories over the rulers of Kanchi, Kalinga, Shrishaila, Malava, Tanka and Lata, but they do not all seem to have resulted in the acquisition of any territory. Though there is much exaggeration in the description of his conquests, there is no doubt that he ruled over Karnataka, Konkan, Maharashtra, Vidarbha and Gujarat.

Dantidurga was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I. who completed the conquests and shattered the power of the Early Chalukyas completely. One of his inscriptions was discovered at Bhandak in the Chandrapur district of Vidarbha. It is dated in the Shaka year 694 (A.D. 772) and records the grant of the village Nagana to a temple of the Sun in Udumbaramanti (modern Rani Amaravati in the Yeotmal district).

Krishna I was not only a great conqueror but also a great builder. He caused the great Shiva temple at Ellora carved out of solid rock. It was originally named Krishneshvara, but is now named Kailasa. It is one of the noblest monuments of India.

In Vidarbha also the Rashtrakutas built several magnificent temples. Those at the village Markandi in the Chandrapur district, where the Vainganga takes a northern bend are specially noteworthy. The most beautiful among these is the Markandeya temple dedicated to Shiva. Cunningham has described it as follows [Cunningham, A.S.R., Vol. IX, p. 145 f] :-­

"The general style of the Markand temple is like that of Khajuraho temples with three rows of figures all round, two ft. three inches in height. In each of these rows there are 45 human figures, making 135 in the lower part of the temple. Higher up than these there is a row of geese and a row of human figures. The whole surface of the temple is in fact literally covered with statues and ornaments. Altogether I counted 409 figures and there are about half as many lions and elephants forming divisions between human statues. About one half of the panels are given to Shiva and Parvati in various forms. There are also many subordinate female figures some dancing, some playing musical instruments and one holding a miror, while puttillg antimony to her eyelids."

The Rashtrakuta family produced several great conquerors  who boldly invaded North and South India and achieved memorable victories. Dhruva (A.D. 780- 793) was the first among them. He defeated both the Gurjara Pratihara king Vatsaraja and the Pala king Dharmapala, who were contending for supremacy in North India, and pressed as far as the Doab. Since then the two sacred rivers Ganga and Yamuna began to appear on the Rashtrakuta banner.

Govinda II, the son and successor of Dhruva, proved to be a still greater conqueror. After obtaining an easy victory over the Ganga king Muttarasa ruling in Gangavadi, he led victorious campaigns in Central and Northern India. He first defeated the Gurjara Pratihara king Nagabhata and his ally Chandragupta in Central India and then routed Dharmapala of Bengal, who had espoused the cause of Chakrayudha of Kanauj. He next marched victoriously to the north until his horses drank and his elephants plunged into the spring waters of the Himalayas. He then returned to the Narmada and marching along the bank of the river, he conquered Malava, Kosala, Kalinga, Vanga, Dahala and Odra countries. He next spent the rainy season at Shribhavana (modern Sarbhon in Gujarat) and afterwards marched with his forces to the bank of the Tungabhadra. Using Alampura (or Helapura) on the bank of the river as his base, he led victorious campaigns against the Keralas, the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Pallavas. Even the king of Lanka submitted to him, sending two statues – one of himself and the other of his minister to his camp at Helapura [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXII, p. 157 f.]

Several copper-plate grants of Govinda III have been found in the Vidarbha and Marathwada Divisions of Maharashtra. It is not possible to give a description of all of them, but we may refer to that discovered in the Nasik district. A set of plates was discovered at Wani in the Dindori taluka of the Nasik district. It was issued by Govinda III and is dated in the Shaka year 730 (A.D. 808) and records the grant of Ambakagram in the Vatanagara vishaya in the Nasikadesha to Brahmana Damodarabhatta, an inhabitant of Vengi, who belonged to the community of the Chaturvedins of that place [Ind. Ant., Vol. XI, p. 157 f.] Another was discovered recently at Dharur in the Bid district of Marathwada Division. It is dated in the Shaka year 728 (A.D. 806) and records the donation of the village Anahe (modern Anegaon) in the Vishaya of Dharaura (modern Dharur). The boundary villages mentioned in the grant can still be identified in the vicinity of Dharur [This is under publication in Ep. Ind.]. Most of Govinda III's grants were issued from Mayurakhandi, which was evidently his capital, but the place has not been yet identified satisfactorily.

Govinda III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha I. who was a man of peaceful disposition, but whose reign was full of troubles. He had first to fight with the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, then the Gangas of Gangavadi and his own relatives in Gujarat. He transferred his capital to Manyakheta (modern Malkhed). He loved and encouraged science and literature and treated all religions with equal reverence. He voluntarily retired from public administration to engage himself in religious pursuits. One one occasion he offered a finger of his hand to the Goddess Mahalakshmi of Kolhapur to ward off a public calamity. Such instances are rare in the history of any country.

Another noteworthy king of this Rashtrakuta family was Indra III the great-grandson of Amoghavarsha I. Like his illustrious ancestors Dhruva and Govinda III, Indra also led a victorious campaign in North India. He followed the route of Bhopal, Jhanshi and Kalpi in the course of his invasion of Kanauj, the imperial capital of India for more than three hundred years. At Kalpi his army was encamped in the courtyard of the temple of Kalapriyanatha, well-known to Sanskritists as the place where all the plays of Bhavabhuti were staged [Mirashi. Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 35 f.]. His horses crossed the Yamuna at Kalpi and then marched on to Kanauj, which he completely devastated. The Gurjara-Pratihara king Mahipala fled to Mahoba to seek the help of his Chandella feudatory Harsha. Indra III's northern campaign was a memorable event unparalleled for its brilliance in the history of the Rashtrakutas.

Recently a grant of Indra III, made on the occasion of his coronation, has been found at Jambgaon in the Gangapur taluka of the Aurangabad district. It is dated in the Shaka year 835 (A.D. 914) and. records the donation of the village Khairondi near Pratishthana (modern Kharvandi near Paithan). The boundary villages can also be identified in its vicinity [Mirashi Studies in Indology Vol. I, p. 35 f.].

Indra III was succeeded by his son -Amoghavarsha II, but he died within a year and was followed by his younger brother Govinda IV. The latter was known for his liberality and rightly had the biruda Suvarnavarsha (the gold-rainer). On the occasion of his coronation he donated eight hundred villages, four laths of gold coins and thirty-two lakhs of silver coins (drammas) to temples and bestowed on Brahmanas, six hundred agraharas and three lakhs of gold coins. Recently another copper-plate grant dated in the Shaka year 851 (A.D. 929) has been discovered at the village Andura in the Akola district of Vidarbha. It records the donation of the village Elauri  (modern Erali) near the railway station Nandur of the Central Railway. Most of the boundary villages can be identified in its vicinity.

The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta and the Kalachuris of Tripuri were matrimonially connected and their relations were generally cordial. But in the reign of Govinda IV they became strained. The Kalachuri king Yuvarajadeva I espoused the cause of his son-in-law Baddiga-Amoghavarsha III, the uncle of Govinda IV, and sent a large army to invade the Rashtrakuta dominion. When the army reached Payoshni (modern Puma), a pitched battle was fought near Achalapura between the Rashtrakuta and Kalachuri forces, in which the latter became victorious. This event is commemorated in the Sanskrit play Viddhashalabhanjika of Rajashekhara, which was staged at Tripuri in jubilation at this victory[C. I. I., Vol. IV, p. lxxviii f.].

The Rashtrakuta feudatories, who rose in rebellion against Govinda IV, deposed him and placed his uncle Baddiga-Amogha­varsha III on the throne. The latter was a man of quiet nature and spiritual temperament, who left the administration of the kingdom entirely to his ambitious and able son Krishna III. Like some of his illustrious ancestors, Krishna III also led an expedition in North India and captured the forts of Kalanjara and Chitrakuta. He succeeded his father in A.D. 939. He then led an expedition against the Cholas and defeated them in a sanguinary battle at Takkola in the North Arcot district. He next carried his victorious arms to Rameshvaram, where he built two temples. Hearing of his victories, the kings of Kerala, Pandya and Ceylon submitted to him. He also placed his own nominee on the throne of Vengi. He thus became the lord paramount of the whole of South India.

Several stone and copper-plate inscriptions of the reign of Krishna III have been discovered in the different parts of the Deccan. One of them may be described here. The Deoli plates dated Shaka 862 (A.D. 940) register the donation of the village Talapurushaka in the vishaya (district) of Nagapura-Nandivardhana, which evidently meant Nandivar­dhana near Nagpur [Mirashi, Studies in Indology. Vol. II, p. 253 f]. This is the earliest mention of the place-name Nagpur. Among the boundaries of the village is mentioned the river Kanhana, modern Kanhan, which flows 10 miles from Nagpur.

After the downfall of the Vakatakas there was no imperial power in Vidarbha. The centre of political power shifted successively to Mahishmati, Badami and Manyakheta. Men of learning who could not get royal patronage in Vidarbha, had to seek it elsewhere. Bhavabhuti, who ranks next only to Kalidasa in Sanskrit literature, was a native of Vidarbha. In the prologue of his play Mahaviracharita, he tells us that his ancestors were known as Udumbara. They probably hailed originally from a place of that name which may be identified with Umarkhed in the Yeotmal district. There is a tradition still current at the place which corroborates this identification. The ancestors of Bhavabhuti later moved to Padmapura in Vidarbha as stated by him in his plays Mahaviracharita and Malatimadhava. This place was once the capital of the Vakatakas and is probably identical with Padmapur near Amgaon in the Bhandara district [Mirashi, Studies in Indology, Vol. I, p. 21 f] with the downfall of the Vakatakas that place lost its importance. In the beginning of the eighth century when Bhavabhuti flourished there was no great king ruling in Vidarbha. Bhavabhuti had therefore to go to Padma­vati, now caned Padam Pawaya in North India, and had to get his plays staged at the fair of Kalapriyanatha (the Sun-god at Kalpi). Later, he obtained royal patronage at the court of Yashovarman of Kanauj. Rajashekhara, another great son of Vidarbha, was probably born at Vatsagulma (modern Bashim in the Akola district), which he has glorified in his Kavyamimamsa as the pleasure resort of the god of love. He and his ancestors Akalajalada, Tarala and Surananda had to leave their home country of Vidarbha to seek patronage at the court of the Kalachuris of Tripuri. Rajashekhar's early plays, viz., the Balaramayana, the Balabharata and the Karpuramanjari, were put on the boards at Kanauj under the patronage of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Later, when the glory of the Pratiharas declined as a result of the raids of the Rashtrakuta king Indra III, who was assisted by the Kalachuri king Yuvarajadeva I, Rajashekhara returned to Tripuri. There his last play Viddhashalabhanjika was staged as stated before [C. I. I., vol. IV, .p. clxxv f.]. Another great poet of Vidarbha who had to go abroad in search of royal patronage was Trivikramabhatta, the author of the Nalachampu, in which he has given a graphic description of several towns, holy places and rivers of Vidarbha. He flourished at the court of the Rashtrakuta king Indra III and is known to have drafted the two sets of the Bagumra plates of that king [Ep.Ind., Vol. IX, pp. 29 f.; 33 f].

Shilaharas: During the Rashtrakuta period a feudatory family established itself in the Northern and Southern Konkan and in the Southern Maratha country comprising the districts of Kolhapur, Belgaon and Satara. They bore the title of Tagara-puradhishvara, which indicates that they originally hailed from Tagara (modern Ter in the Osmanabad district). All the branches of this family traced their descent from the mythical Vidyadhara prince Jimutavahana, the son of Jimutaketu, who offered to sacrifice himself to rescue a Naga from the clutches of Garuda. The family name is supposed to have been derived from this incident. The Shilaharas of South Konkan rose to power as feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. Sanaphulla, the founder of this family, is said to have had the favour of Krishnaraja, who is evidently the first Rashtrakuta king of that name. His capital was probably at Chandrapura, modern Chandor on the left bank of the river Paroda, south of Goa. His successor Dhammiyara is said to have founded Balipattana (modern Kharepatan) in the Ratnagiri district, which he made his capital. [The last dated inscription of Someshvaradeva is dated S. 1182, Ep. Ind., XXIII, 279.]. This family ruled in South Konkan from circa A.D. 765 to A.D. 1029. These Shilaharas remained loyal to their suzerains who were the Rashtrakutas and give their genealogy in their grants even after their overthrow by the Later Chalukya king Tailapa. Rattaraja, the last known king of this branch of the Shilaharas, made a grant to the teacher Atreya, the disciple of the Shaiva Acharya Ambhojashambhu, who belonged to the Karkachoni branch of the Mattamayura clan of the Shaiva sect. Mattamayura, the original seat of the clan, is probably identical with Kadvaha in Central India.

Rattaraja is the last known king of this branch. He declared his independence during the reign of the Later Chalukya king Vikramaditya V when the imperial power became weak. But Jayasimha, the younger brother of Vikramaditya V, invaded South Konkan, overthrew the reigning king and appropriated his possessions, as stated in his Miraj plates dated in A.D. 1024.

North Konkan was conquered by the Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga some time in the second quarter of the eighth century A. D. Kapardin I, the first known Shilahara king of North Konkan, was placed in charge of the country by the Rashtrakuta king Govinda III. Since then North Konkan came to be known as Kapardi-dvipa or Kavadidvipa. The capital of this branch was Puri now known as Rajapuri in the Kolaba district. This branch also produced several kings who built magni­ficent temples like the one at Ambarnath and gave liberal patronage to Sanskrit learning. They continued to hold North Konkan till 1265. The last king Someshvara was overthrown by the Yadava  Emperor Mahadeva in circa A.D. 1265 [The last dated inscription of Someshvaradeva is dated S. 1182, Ep. Ind., XXIII, 279.].

The third branch of the Shilaharas ruled over the Southern Maratha country, comprising the modern districts of Satara, Kolha­pur and Belgaon. Their family deity was the goddess Mahalakshmi of Kolhapur, whose boon they claim to have secured in their copper­plate grants. Their capital was probably Kolhapur, though some of their grants mention Valavada, and the hill fort of Pranalaka (modern Panhala) as the places of royal residence. This branch rose to power late in the Rashtrakuta period and so, unlike the kings of ­the other two branches, those of this branch do not mention the genealogy of the Rashtrakutas even in their early grants. Later they acknowledged the suzerainty of the Later Chalukya for some time. This branch continued to hold the Southern Maratha Country from circa A.D. 940 to A.D. 1215.

In the Vikramankadevacharita Bilahana gives a graphic description of the Vidyadhara (i.e., Shilahara) princess Chandralekha. She was probably a daughter of the Shilahara prince ruling from Karahata (modern Karhad), for the svayamvara of the princess is said to have been held at Karahata. She chose the powerful Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI as her husband in that svayamvara. In the Rajatarangini Kalhana describes how when Harsha, the contemporary king of Kashmir saw a portrait of Chandala (i.e., Chandralekha) the beautiful wife of Karnata king, Parmandi, he became smitten with love and vowed that he would obtain Chandala over-­throwing Parmandi. Kalhana holds the king to ridicule for his foolishness [Rajuturungini. VII, p. 1119 f.].

The last known king of this branch was Bhoja II. the greatest ruler of this line.  On account of his great valour, he was known as Vira-Bhoja. He assumed the imperial titles Rajadhiraja. Parameshvara, Paramabhattaraka and Pashchima-Chakravarti. This could not, however, be tolerated by the Yadavas, who were then establishing their supremacy in the Deccan. Singhana the mighty Yadava king of Devagiri, invaded the Shilahara kingdom and laid siege to the fort of Pranala (panhala). He soon reduced it and taking Bhoja captive, he threw him into prison on the same fort. Thereafter, we begin to get the inscriptions of the Governors who were appointed by the Yadavas to administer that country.  Like the kings of other two branches of the Shilahara family, those of Konkan also extended their patronage to learned men. One of these was Somadeva, the author of the Sabdarnavachandrika, a work of the Jainendra Vyakarana [Ind. Ant., Vol. X, p. 76 n.].

Later Chalukyas: The Rashtrakuta power became weak after the death of Krishna III. Within six years his large empire crumbled to pieces like a house of cards. Tailap II, the founder of the Later Chalukya dynasty, who was a Mahasamanta of the Rashtrakutas, suddenly came into prominence. He defeated and killed in battle Karka II. the last Rashtrakuta king and captured his capital Manya­kheta. He had to fight against the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Paramaras. The Paramara king Vakpati Munja planned to invade the Chalukya dominion but his wise minister Rudraditya advised him not to cross the Godavari, which was the boundary between the Chalukya and Paramara dominions. Munja did not heed his advice and was taken prisoner by Tailapa. He was placed in a prison  where he was waited upon by Tailapa's sister Mrinalavati. He fell in love with her and foolishly disclosed to her the plan of his escape. She communicated it to Tailapa, who is said to have made him beg from door to door and then beheaded him.

Among the successors of Tailapa II, the most famous is Vikrama­ditya VI, the founder of the Chalukya-Vikrama Samvat. He ascended the throne in A.D. 1075. He had to fight against the Cholas, the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Hoysalas and signally defeated them. Two inscriptions of his reign have been found in Vidarbha. One of them called the Sitabaldi pillar inscription seems to have originally belonged to the Vindhyasana hill at Bhandak in the Chandrapur district. It is dated in the Shaka year 1008 (A.D. 1087) and registers the grant of some nivartanas of land for the grazing of cattle made by a feudatory called Dhadi-bhandaka. The other inscription was discovered at Dongargaon in the Yeotmal district. It throws interesting light on the history of the Paramara dynasty. It shows that Jagaddeva, the youngest son of the Paramara king Udayaditya, the brother of Bhoja, left Malva and sought service under Vikramaditya  who welcomed him and placed him in charge of some portion of Western Vidarbha. The Dongargaon inscription is dated in the Shaka year 1034 (A.D. 1112). [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVI, p. 177 f.] Another inscription of this Jagaddeva has come to notice at Jainad in the adjoining Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh. It records several victories of Jagaddeva in Andhra, Dorasamudra and near the Arbuda mountain, and registers the construction of a temple of Nimbaditya by his minister Lolarka [Ibid., Vol. XXII, p. 54 f.].

Vikramaditya's reign is renowned on account of some  learned men who flourished at his court. Bilhana, who was patronised by him, wrote the Vikramankadevacharita, which is his poetic biography. Another great writer who flourished at his court was Vijnaneshvara, the author of the well-known Mitakshara on the Yajnavalkya-smriti.

Vikramaditya VI was succeeded by his son Someshvara III, who became known as Sarvajna-chakravarti on account of his extensive knowledge. He composed the encyclopaedic work Manasollasa or Abhilashitarthachintamani. An inscription of his reign has been dis­covered at Latur in the Osmanabad district. [S. M. H. D., Vol. II, p. 84 f.] It records the construction of the temple of the god Papavinashana at Lattalura, modern Latur. It is dated in the Shaka year 1049 (A.D. 1128), which falls in the reign of Someshvara III.

Tailap III, the last Chalukya king, was overthrown by the Kalachuri Bijjala, who was his Commander-in-Chief, in A.D. 1157. The Kala­churi usurpation lasted for more than two decades. Bijjala's reign is noted for the rise of the Lingayat Sect. An inscription of the Kadamba prince Maradadeva, dated in the Shaka year 1086 (A.D. 1164), was discovered at Savargaon in the Osmanabad district. It records the gift of some money for the construction of the temple of the goddess Amba at Savargaon [Loc. cit.]. Maradadeva, who bears the title of Mahamandaleshvara, was probably a feudatory of the Kalachuri Bijjala as the date falls in the latter's reign (A.D. 1156-68), though the inscrip­tion makes no mention of his name.

Yadavas: In the last quarter of the twelfth century A.D. the Yadavas of Devagiri came into prominence. They had previously been ruling over Seunadesha (Khandesh) as feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. The founder of the family was Dridhaprahara, the son of Subahu. His capital was Shrinagara as stated in the Vratakhanda, while from an early inscription it appears to have been Chandradityapura, which is identified with the modern Chandor in the Nasik district. His son and successor was Seunachandra, from whom the country ruled over by him came to be known as Seunadesha. This corres­ponds to modern Khandesh. It comprised the country extending from Nasik to Devagiri. Bhillama II, a later prince of this family, assisted Tailapa in the latter's war with the Paramara king Munja. Seunachandra II is said to have helped Vikramaditya VI in gaining the throne. Bhillama V, son of Mallugi, taking advantage of the decline of the power of the Chalukyas of Kalyani, made a bid for paramount power in the Deccan. He led victorious expeditions against the Hoysalas, the Paramaras and the Chalukyas and made himself master of the whole country north of the Krishna. He then founded the city of Devagiri (modern Daulatabad) and made it his capital. Thereafter these Northern Yadavas ruled from that city. .

From a stone inscription [Ind. Ant., Vol. XII, p. 126 f.] found at Anjaneri near Nasik it appears that there was a minor branch of the Yadava family ruling at Anjaneri. Seunadeva of this branch made some grant to a Jain temple. Seunadevi1 calls himself Mahasamanta and evidently was dependent on the main branch. This family ruled over a small district of which Anjaneri was the chief city.

Bhillama V's son Jaitugi or Jaitrapala killed Rudradeva of the Kakatiya dynasty on the field of battle and released his nephew whom he had put into prison. Under Jaitrapala's son Singhana the power of the family greatly increased. We get considerable information about his victories from four stone inscriptions of his general Kholeshvara at Ambe Jogai in the Bid district, Kholeshvara was a native of Vidarbha and was ruling at Ambe, where he has left his inscriptions. Some more details are furnished by a later copper­plate grant of Ramachandra found at Purushottampuri in the Bid district [Ep. Ind.. Vol. XXXII, p. 31 f.].

Singhana achieved several victories. He defeated the Hoysala king Vira-Ballala, the Kakatiya king Ganapati and Lakshmidhara, the lord of Bhambhagiri, modern Bhamer in the Sakri taluka in Khandesh. He confined Bhoja II of the Shilahara family on the hill of Pranala, a strong fort 12 miles to the north-west of Kolhapur. Most of these victories were won by his Brahmana general Kholeshvara. The latter vanquished also Arjunavarmadeva, king of Malva, and even pressed as far north as Varanasi, where he put Rajyapala to flight. Kholeshvara constructed several temples in Vidarbha and also esta­blished agraharas on the banks of the Payoshni (Puma) and the Varada (Wardha). The former agrahara still exists under the name of the village Kholapur in the Amravati district.

Singhana was succeeded by his grandson Krishna, who obtained victories over the kings of Gurjara, Malava, Chola and Kerala. The Gurjara king was Vishaladeva and the Malava ruler was Jaitugideva. The contemporary Chola king was Rajendra III (A.D. 1246). The Kolshala king was evidently the contemporary ruler of Ratanpur in Chhattisgadh, who was probably the successor of Jajalladeva, defeated by Singhana, but no records of his reign have yet been discovered. An inscription of the reign of Krishna has been found in the temple of Khandeshvara in the Amravati district. It is dated in the Shaka year 1177 (A.D. 1254-55), and records the donation of some gadyanas, for the offering of flowers in the temple of Khandeshvara [Ibid., Vol. XXV, p. 199 f.]. Krishna was succeeded by. his brother Mahadeva. From the recently discovered Kalegaon plates [Ibid.. Vol. XXVII, p. 9 f.] we know the exact date of his coronation as the 29th August A.D. 1261. The 111ost notable event of his reign was the annexation of North Konkan after defeating Someshvara of the Shilahara dynasty. He left the throne to his son Amana, but the latter was soon deposed by Krishna's son Ramachandra, who captured the impregnable fort of Devagiri by means of a coup d' etat. He won several victories as mentioned in the Purushottampuri plates dated in the Shaka year 1222 (A.D. 1310). He is said to have defeated with ease the ruler of Dahala (i.e., the Chedi country), subjugated the ruler of Bhandagara (i.e., Bhandara) and dethroned the king of Vajrakara (Vairagadh). He is further credited with a victory over the Muhammedans, whom he drove out from Varanasi. He built there a golden temple dedicated to Sharngapani (Vishnu). His minister Purushottama received from him the grant of four villages, of which he formed an agrahara and donated it to several Brahmanas on the holy day of Kapilashashthi in the Shaka year 1232. The agrahara was named Purushottamapura after the donor. It is still extant under its original name on the southern bank of the Godavari, about 40 miles due west of Parbhani. The villages together with their boundaries can still be identified in the vicinity of Purushottampuri [Ep. Ind., Vol. XXXII, p. 31 f.].

A fragmentary inscription of the time of Ramachandra is built into the front wall of the temple of Lakshmana on the hill of Ramtek. In the first half it gives the genealogy of Ramachandra and in the second half it describes the temples, wells and tirthas on and in the vicinity of the hill which it names as Ramagiri. The object of the inscription seems to be to record the repairs to the temple of Lakshmana done by Raghava, a minister of Ramachandra [Ibid., Vol. XXV, p. 7 f.].

In A D. 1294 Ala-ud-din Khilji invaded the kingdom of Ramachandra and suddenly appeared before the gates of Devagiri. Ramachandra was taken unawares and could not hold out long. He had to pay a heavy ransom to the Muslim conqueror. He continued, however, to rule till A.D. 1310 at least; for the aforementioned Purushottam­puri plates are dated in that year. He was succeeded by his son  Shankaragana some time in A.D. 1311. He discontinued sending the stipulated tribute to Delhi. He was then defeated and slain by Malik Kafur. Some time thereafter, Harapaladeva, the son-in-law of Ramachandra, raised an insurrection and drove away the Muha­mmedans, but his success was short-lived. The Hindu kingdom of Devagiri thus came to an end in A.D. 1318.

Like their illustrious predecessors, the Yadavas also extended liberal patronage to art and literature. During their rule a peculiar style of architecture called Hemadpanti after Hemadri or Hemadpant, a minister of Mahadeva and Ramachandra came into vogue. Temples built in this style are found in all the districts of Maharashtra. Several learned scholars flourished at the Yadava court. Of these, Hemadri was the foremost. During the reign of Mahadeva he held the post of Shrikaranadhipa or the Head of the Secretariat. He was appointed minister and Head of the Elephant force by Ramachandra. He was as brave as he was learned. He conquered and annexed to the Yadava kingdom the eastern part of Vidarbha called Jhadi-mandala. Hemadri is well-known as the author of the Chaturvargachintamani, comprising five parts, viz., (1) Vratakhanda, (2) Danakhanda, (3) Tirthakhanda, (4) Mokshakhanda, and (5) Parisheshakhanda. Of these, the third and the fourth Khandas have not yet come to light. Hemadri's work is held in great esteem and has been drawn upon by later writers of Dharmashastra. Hemadri wrote on other subjects as well. He is the author of a commentary on Shaunaka's Pranavakalpa and also a Shraddhakalpa, in which he follows Katyayana. His Ayurvedarasayana, a commentary on Vagbhata's Ashtangahridaya and Kaivalyadipika, a gloss on Bopadeva's Muktaphala are well known.

Hemadri extended liberal patronage to learned men. Among his proteges the most famous was Bopadeva. He was a native of Vedapada (modern Bedod) on the bank of the Wardha in the Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh. Bopadeva is said to have composed ten works on grammar, nine on medicine, one for the determination of tithis, three on poetics, and an equal number for the elucidation of the Bhagavata doctrine. Only eight of these are now extant. The Mugdhabodha, his work on Sanskrit grammar, is very popular in Bengal.

Marathi literature also flourished in the age of the Yadavas. Chakradhara, who propagated the Mahanubhava cult in that age, used Marathi as the medium of his religious teaching. Following his example, several of his followers composed literary works in Marathi. They are counted among the first works in that language. Mukundaraja, the author of the Vedanta works Vivekasindhu and Paramamrita, and Jnaneshvara, the celebrated author of the Bhavarthadipika, a commen­tary on the Bhagavadgita, are the most illustrious writers of that age.